Public International Law

Many of the treaties brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among nations.

The exercise of these rights has no other limitation than the exercise of the rights of other states according to international law.

We-The President of the United States, the President of the National Government of the Republic of China, and the Prime Minister of Great Britain

THE United States of America and her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

It is an international treaty, the purpose of which was the creation of an international organization called the BIPM.

Contracting parties

Agreement concluded at Munich, September 29, 1938, between Germany, Great Britain, France and Italy

The conference was called to establish the terms of the peace after World War I.

Russia offered to sell Alaska to the United States in 1859

They further undertake to assist one another with all political, economic and military means

The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework on international space law

divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Crown of Castile

The Republic of Mexico and the United States of America desiring to remove every cause of disagreement

The United States of America, and His Majesty The King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, desirous to cement the good Understanding

The public part was a non-aggression pact in which each country promised not to attack the other.

a treaty or general convention of peace and amity

It is accordingly understood between the French and British governments:

To the end that this prohibition shall be universally accepted as a part of International Law

founded on international law, confirmed by treaties

an agreement between Spain and the United States

Convention between the French Republic, and the United States of America.

a secret agreement signed on 1 October 1800 between Spain and the French Republic

Treaty between the United States and other Powers providing for the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy.

The International Monetary Fund is established and shall operate in accordance with the following provisions:

The High Contracting Parties formally condemn war and undertake in their international relations not to resort to the threat or the use of force in any manner inconsistent with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations or of this Treaty.

The treaty provided for the organisation of military, economic, social and cultural cooperation among member states as well as a mutual defence clause.

prohibited all test detonations of nuclear weapons except for those conducted underground

Treaty to Settle and Define the Boundaries between the Territories of the United States and the Possessions of Her Britannic Majesty in North America

The WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) is a special agreement under the Berne Convention

is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity

decided to convene in 2017 a United Nations conference to negotiate a legally binding instrument to prohibit nuclear weapons

The Treaty was opened for signature on 24 September 1996 and it will remain open for signature until its entry into force

limiting the development of both offensive and defensive strategic systems would stabilize U.S.-Soviet relations

The Governments of Japan and Great Britain actuated solely by a desire to maintain the status quo and general peace in the Extreme East

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

The International Court of Justice (ICJ; French: Cour internationale de justice, CIJ), or colloquially the World Court, is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN).

The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), also known as the Strasbourg Court, is an international court of the Council of Europe which interprets the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).

The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an intergovernmental organisation and international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly that codifies some of the rights and freedoms of all human beings.

The Inter-American Court of Human Rights (I/A Court H.R.) is an international court based in San José, Costa Rica.

Diplomatic immunity is a principle of international law by which certain foreign government officials are recognized as having legal immunity from the jurisdiction of another country.

The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) is an intergovernmental organization created by the mandate of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea.

The Geneva Conventions are a series of four international treaties (1949) and their three additional protocols that form the core of international humanitarian law.

The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court is the treaty that established the International Criminal Court (ICC).

The United Nations General Assembly adopted it by Resolution 2200A (XXI) on 16 December 1966, and it entered into force on 23 March 1976 after its thirty-fifth ratification or accession.

It is a seminal case in the realm of international human rights law that is known for its analysis of state responsibility for enforced disappearances.

United States of America) (1986) was a case where the International Court of Justice (ICJ) held that the U.S.

It is customary international law.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (commonly abbreviated as the CRC or UNCRC) is an international human rights treaty which sets out the civil, political, economic, social, health, and cultural rights of children.

The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (commonly known as the European Convention on Human Rights or ECHR) is a supranational international treaty designed to protect human rights and political freedoms throughout Europe.

The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly.

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) is an international human rights treaty of the United Nations intended to protect the rights and dignity of persons with disabilities.

The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) is a United Nations convention.

The American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR), also known as the Pact of San José or by its Spanish name used in most of the signatory nations, Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, is an international human rights instrument.

It emerged under the aegis of the Organisation of African Unity (since replaced by the African Union) which, at its 1979 Assembly of Heads of State and Government, adopted a resolution calling for the creation of a committee of experts to draft a continent-wide human rights instrument, similar to those that already existed in Europe (European Convention on Human Rights) and the Americas (American Convention on Human Rights).

The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), or the Genocide Convention, is an international treaty that criminalizes genocide and obligates state parties to pursue the enforcement of its prohibition.

The Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (commonly known as the United Nations Convention Against Torture (UNCAT)) is an international human rights treaty under the review of the United Nations that aims to prevent torture and other acts of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment around the world.

Non-refoulement () is a fundamental principle of international law anchored in the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees that forbids a country from deporting ("refoulement") any person to any country in which their "life or freedom would be threatened" on account of "race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion".

The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are a series of international treaties and declarations negotiated at two international peace conferences at The Hague in the Netherlands, the First Hague Conference of 1899 and the Second Hague Conference of 1907.

The Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, also known as the 1951 Refugee Convention or the Geneva Convention of 28 July 1951, is a United Nations multilateral treaty originally designed to establish the legal status of displaced persons in post-World War II Europe.

The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) is an international agreement that regulates treaties among sovereign states.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a multilateral treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (GA) on 16 December 1966 through GA.

The Montreal Protocol, officially the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.

The African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights, also known simply as the African Court, is an international court established by member states of the African Union (AU) to implement provisions of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (also known as the Banjul Charter).

International courts are formed by treaties between nations, or by an international organization such as the United Nations - and include ad hoc tribunals and permanent institutions but exclude any courts arising purely under national authority.

The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was an ad hoc court of the United Nations that was established to prosecute the war crimes that had been committed during the Yugoslav Wars and to try their perpetrators.

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR; French: Tribunal pénal international pour le Rwanda; Kinyarwanda: Urukiko Mpanabyaha Mpuzamahanga Rwashyiriweho u Rwanda) was an international ad-hoc court established in November 1994 by the United Nations Security Council in Resolution 955 in order to adjudicate people charged for the Rwandan genocide and other serious violations of international law in Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994.

It was an international court attached to the League of Nations.

Since the nineteenth century, it has been used in international law to refer to the principle by which territories deemed not to belong to any recognised sovereign state could be acquired through occupation.

The Martens Clause (pronounced /mar'tɛnz/) is an early international law concept first introduced into the preamble of the 1899 Hague Convention II - Laws and Customs of War on Land.

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), or Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is a disarmament treaty that effectively bans biological and toxin weapons by prohibiting their development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use.

The Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (French: Convention relative à la protection des personnes civiles en temps de guerre), more commonly referred to as the Fourth Geneva Convention or Geneva Convention IV (abbreviated as GCIV), is one of the four treaties of the 1949 Geneva Conventions.

The Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field (French: Convention pour l'amélioration du sort des blessés et des malades dans les forces armées en campagne), more commonly referred to as the First Geneva Convention or Geneva Convention I and abbreviated as GCI, is the first of the four treaties of the 1949 Geneva Conventions.

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of Ramsar sites (wetlands).

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978, or "MARPOL 73/78" (short for "marine pollution") is one of the most important international marine environmental conventions.

The 1926 Slavery Convention or the Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery is an international treaty created under the auspices of the League of Nations and first signed on 25 September 1926.

The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction of 1997, known informally as the Ottawa Treaty, the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, or often simply the Mine Ban Treaty, aims at eliminating anti-personnel landmines (APLs) around the world.

International human rights law (IHRL) is the body of international law designed to promote human rights on social, regional, and domestic levels.

International Law and the Arab-Israeli conflict (PDF) - Extracts from Israel and Palestine - Assault on the Law of Nations Works by or about Julius Stone at the Internet Archive Julius Stone (7 July 1907 - 3 September 1985) was Challis Professor of Jurisprudence and International Law at the University of Sydney from 1942 to 1972, and thereafter a visiting professor of law at the University of New South Wales and concurrently Distinguished Professor of Jurisprudence and International Law at the Hastings College of Law, University of California.

He has authored numerous articles and books on jurisprudence, international law, legal anthropology, and United States constitutional law.

Zupančič (born 13 May 1947, in Ljubljana, Slovenia) is a former Judge at the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France (1998-2016) and also the President of the Third Chamber at this Court from November 2004 to January 2008.

Róbert Ragnar Spanó (born 27 August 1972) is an Icelandic-Italian jurist, judge, and former president of the European Court of Human Rights.

José Gustavo Guerrero (26 June 1876 - 25 October 1958) was a Salvadoran diplomat and jurist who served as the last president of the Permanent Court of International Justice from 1937 to 1946 and the first president of the International Court of Justice from 1946 to 1949.

Kéba Mbaye (5 August 1924 - 11 January 2007) was a Senegalese judge and member of both the International Olympic Committee and the International Court of Justice.

Gilberto Felici is currently judge at the European Court of Human Rights with respect to San Marino since September 2018.

He was the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) from 2003 to 2016, and the Prosecutor of the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals (IRMCT) from 2012 t

Sir Christopher John Greenwood (born 12 May 1955) is Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge, an arbitrator of international disputes, and a former British judge at the International Court of Justice.

He served two terms as judge at the International Court of Justice (from 1994 to 2012).

She was a judge of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and of the International Criminal Court (ICC).

Previously, he was a judge of the International Criminal Court in The Hague from 2003-12, the Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales from January 2016 to March 2017, and former member of the National Council for Civil Liberties (NCCL).

He was judge of the International Court of Justice, judge and twice vice president of the Yugoslavia tribunal and a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

Raymond Ranjeva (born August 31, 1942) served as a judge on the International Court of Justice from February, 1991 until February, 2009.

Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga (Montevido, 1918 - Punta del Este, 5 April 1994) was an Uruguayan professor, jurist, and President of the International Court of Justice.

Wilfred Jenks (7 March 1909 - 9 October 1973) was an international lawyer and director-general of the International Labour Organization (1970-1973).

Charles Henry Alexandrowicz (13 October 1902 - 26 September 1975), born Karol Aleksandrowicz, was a lawyer and scholar of international law.

Christine Mary Chinkin (born 1949) is a professor of international law and founding director of the Centre for Women, Peace and Security at the London School of Economics and Political Science.

Benedict William Kingsbury is Vice Dean and Director of the Institute for International Law and Justice at New York University and a leading scholar in international law and diplomacy.

Anne Peters (born November 15, 1964, in Berlin) is a German-Swiss jurist with a focus on public international law.

He also serves as President of the Commonwealth Judicial Education Institute, and is former President of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), and former Chief Justice of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court.

He was a professor of public law and the resident of the International Law Institute.

Sergio García Ramírez (1 February 1938 - 10 January 2024) was a Mexican jurist and politician who served as a judge at the Inter-American Court of Human Rights from 1997 to 2009.

Mirjan Damaška (born October 8, 1931) is an American and Croatian jurist and legal scholar, known for his works in the sphere of comparative criminal justice and international criminal law.

Angelika Helene Anna Nußberger (born 1 June 1963 in Munich) is a German professor of law and scholar of Slavic studies, and was the judge in respect of Germany at the European Court of Human Rights from 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2019; from 2017 to 2019 she was the Court's vice-president.

Miatta Maria Samba (born 3 October 1971) is a Sierra Leonian jurist and current Judge at the International Criminal Court (ICC) in The Hague, Netherlands.

Gocha Lordkipanidze (Georgian: გოჩა ლორთქიფანიძე; born 3 February 1964) is a Georgian lawyer, legal scholar and civil servant, who has been a judge of the International Criminal Court since 2021.

Sergio Gerardo Ugalde Godínez (born 3 April 1971) is a prominent jurist and international lawyer from Costa Rica, and a current judge at the International Criminal Court (ICC).

Althea Violet Alexis-Windsor (born 22 June 1973), is a Judge of the International Criminal Court.

Kristina Pardalos (born 1973) is a Sammarinese judge, who was elected as the San Marino judge at the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) on 21 September 2009, where she replaced the retiring Antonella Mularoni.

Florence Ndepele Mwachande Mumba (born in Mazabuka, Zambia in 1948), commonly referred to as Florence Mumba, is a Zambian judge who served in the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, also known as the Khmer Rouge Tribunal or the Cambodia Tribunal.

From 2004 to 2009, he was a Judge of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia.

Walther Adrian Schücking (6 January 1875-25 August 1935) was a German liberal politician, professor of public international law and the first German judge at the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague.

The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, also known as the ABM Treaty or ABMT, was a 1972 arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against strategic ballistic missiles, which are used to deliver nuclear weapons It was intended to reduce pressures to build more nuclear weapons to maintain deterrence.

The Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) is an international patent law treaty, concluded in 1970.

The amending treaty was signed at Luxembourg City on 17 February 1986 and at The Hague on 28 February 1986.

Treaty of Friendship and Commerce between Great Britain and Siam (Thai: หนังสือสัญญากรุงเทพมหานครกับกรุงอังกริษเปนทางไมตรีค้าขายกัน), known colloquially as the Bowring Treaty, was the historic landmark treaty signed between the United Kingdom during the reign of Queen Victoria and the Kingdom of Siam during the reign of King Mongkut on 18 April 1855 at Thonburi, Bangkok.

The Burlingame Treaty (Chinese: 中美天津條約續增條款), also known as the Burlingame-Seward Treaty of 1868, and formally titled the Sino-American Treaty of Peace, Amity, and Commerce, was a landmark treaty between the United States and Qing China, amending the Treaty of Tientsin, to establish formal friendly relations between the two nations, with the United States granting China the status of most favored nation with regard to trade.

The Treaty of Osimo was signed on 10 November 1975 by Italy and Yugoslavia in Osimo, Italy, to definitively divide the Free Territory of Trieste between the two states: the port city of Trieste with a narrow coastal strip to the north-west (Zone A) was given to Italy; a portion of the north-western part of the Istrian peninsula (Zone B) was given to Yugoslavia.

The Simla Convention (Traditional Chinese: 西姆拉條約; Simplified Chinese: 西姆拉条约), officially the Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, was an ambiguous treaty concerning the status of Tibet negotiated by representatives of the Republic of China, Tibet and Great Britain in Simla and Delhi during 1913-1914, with the eventual signing of the Convention taking place in Simla.

The Agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (officially), or unofficially the Minsk Agreement and best known as the Belovezha Accords, is the agreement declaring that the Soviet Union (USSR) had effectively ceased to exist and establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place as an organization created by the same Union Republics.

The First Vienna Award was a treaty signed on 2 November 1938 pursuant to the Vienna Arbitration, which took place at Vienna's Belvedere Palace.

The Treaty of Rapallo was an agreement signed on 16 April 1922 between Germany and Russia under which both renounced all territorial and financial claims against each other and opened friendly diplomatic relations.

The Treaty of Georgievsk (Russian: Георгиевский трактат, romanized: Georgievskiy traktat; Georgian: გეორგიევსკის ტრაქტატი, romanized: georgievsk'is t'rakt'at'i) was a bilateral treaty concluded between the Russian Empire and the east Georgian kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti on July 24, 1783.

The Treaty of Windsor is a diplomatic alliance signed between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of England on 24 February 1387 in Windsor, Berkshire, and sealed by the marriage of King John I of Portugal (House of Aviz) to Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster.

The Treaty of Vereeniging was a peace treaty, signed on 31 May 1902, that ended the Second Boer War between the South African Republic and the Orange Free State on the one side, and the United Kingdom on the other.

The Treaty of Fes (Arabic: معاهدة فاس, French: Traité de Fès), officially the Treaty Concluded Between France and Morocco on 30 March 1912, for the Organization of the French Protectorate in the Sharifian Empire (French: Traité conclu entre la France et le Maroc le 30 mars 1912, pour l'organisation du protectorat français dans l'Empire chérifien), was a treaty signed by Sultan Abd al-Hafid of Morocco under duress and French diplomat Eugène Regnault on 30 March 1912.

The North American Free Trade Agreement (Spanish: Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte, TLCAN; French: Accord de libre-échange nord-américain, ALÉNA), referred to colloquially in the Anglosphere as NAFTA ( NAF-tə), was an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States that created a trilateral trade bloc in North America.

The Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty (ANZUS or ANZUS Treaty) is a collective security agreement between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States that was signed in 1951, and from which New Zealand has been partially suspended since 1986.

It was signed on 15 May 1955 in Vienna, at the Schloss Belvedere among the Allied occupying powers (France, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union) and the Austrian government.

The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (Spanish: Tratado Hay-Bunau Varilla) was a treaty signed on November 18, 1903, by the United States and Panama, which established the Panama Canal Zone and the subsequent construction of the Panama Canal.

The Treaty of Rarotonga is the common name for the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty, which formalises a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the South Pacific.

The Convention of Constantinople is a treaty concerning the use of the Suez Canal in the Ottoman-ruled Khedivate of Egypt.

The Declaration by United Nations was the main treaty that formalized the Allies of World War II and was signed by 47 national governments between 1942 and 1945.

The Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, more commonly known as the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty in English and as the Anpo jōyaku or just Anpo in Japanese, is a treaty that permits the presence of U.S. military bases on Japanese soil, and commits the two nations to defend each other if one or the other is attacked "in the territories under the administration of Japan".

The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (TCE; commonly referred to as the European Constitution or as the Constitutional Treaty) was an unratified international treaty intended to create a consolidated constitution for the European Union (EU).

The Armistice of Villa Giusti or Padua Armistice was an armistice convention with Austria-Hungary which de facto ended warfare between Allies and Associated Powers and Austria-Hungary during World War I.

The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population.

Juni), sometimes referred to as the Second Armistice at Compiègne, was an agreement signed at 18:36 on 22 June 1940 near Compiègne, France, by officials of Nazi Germany and the French Third Republic.

START I (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was a bilateral treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the reduction and the limitation of strategic offensive arms.

It amended the Maastricht Treaty (or the Treaty on European Union) and the Treaty of Rome (or the Treaty establishing the European Community which, before the Maastricht Treaty, was the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community).

The Treaty of Manila of 1946, formally the Treaty of General Relations and Protocol, is a treaty of general relations signed on July 4, 1946, in Manila, the capital of the Philippines.

The Special Court for Sierra Leone, or the "Special Court" (SCSL), also called the Sierra Leone Tribunal, was a judicial body set up by the government of Sierra Leone and the United Nations to "prosecute persons who bear the greatest responsibility for serious violations of international humanitarian law and Sierra Leonean law" committed in Sierra Leone after 30 November 1996 and during the Sierra Leone Civil War.

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC; French: Chambres extraordinaires au sein des tribunaux cambodgiens (CETC); Khmer: អង្គជំនុំជម្រះវិសាមញ្ញក្នុងតុលាការកម្ពុជា), commonly known as the Cambodia Tribunal or Khmer Rouge Tribunal (សាលាក្ដីខ្មែរក្រហម), was a court established to try the senior leaders and the most responsible members of the Khmer Rouge for alleged violations of international law and serious crimes perpetrated during the Cambodian genocide.

Handyside v United Kingdom (5493/72) was a landmark case decided by the European Court of Human Rights in 1976.

United Kingdom is a case decided by the European Court of Human Rights on 11 July 2002.

China, PCA case number 2013-19) was an arbitration case brought by the Republic of the Philippines against the People's Republic of China (PRC) under Annex VII (subject to Part XV) of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, ratified by the Philippines in 1984, by the PRC in 1996, opted out from Section 2 of Part XV by China in 2006) concerning certain issues in the South China Sea, including the nine-dash line introduced by the mainland-based Republic of China since as early as 1947.

In the practice of international law, command responsibility (also superior responsibility) is the legal doctrine of hierarchical accountability for war crimes, whereby a commanding officer (military) and a superior officer (civil) are legally responsible for the war crimes and the crimes against humanity committed by their subordinates; thus, a commanding officer always is accountable for the acts of commission and the acts of omission of their soldiers.

The margin of appreciation (or margin of state discretion) is a legal doctrine with a wide scope in international human rights law.

The act-of-state doctrine is a principle in international law whereby acts done by a state in its own territory cannot be challenged by the national courts of another state.

The International Health Regulations (IHR), first adopted by the World Health Assembly in 1969 and last revised in 2024, are legally binding rules that only apply to the WHO that is an instrument that aims for international collaboration "to prevent, protect against, control, and provide a public health response to the international spread of disease in ways that are commensurate with and restricted to public health risks and that avoid unnecessary interference with international traffic and trade".

The PCA was established by the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, which concluded at The Hague in 1899 during the first Hague Peace Conference of 1899.

Found guilty, on 14 March 2012, of the war crimes of enlisting and conscripting children under the age of 15 years and using them to participate actively in hostilities (child soldiers).

The principle is a traditional basis of the rules of procedure governing civil and administrative litigation in continental legal systems, and in public international law.